Twisted Trials: Witchcraft in Essex

A history of witchcraft in Essex

By Hannah Wilson, Curator

This article compiles all the information from our 2021 series Twisted Trials, which covered the witch hunts in East Anglia.

Content Warning: We advise adults read this article in its entirety before sharing with children as it may frighten younger audiences. Hanging and the death penalty are discussed, as well as mention of torture.

Mention the Witch Hunts and most will think of medieval peasants burning an old woman at the stake, but that’s not necessarily the case. For one thing, they happened in the Early Modern Era (1453-1789), instead of the Medieval Era or Middle Ages (476-1453). Also the punishment of death by burning, usually burning at the stake, was quite rare in England, reserved for heretics and traitors. In fact most ‘witches’ were hanged at public gallows.

Scope and Accuracy

Before we begin, it’s worth pointing out a couple of things about scope, accuracy and statistics. This article only covers the witch hunts in England; other countries, including some within the UK like Scotland, used different laws, methods and criteria, and were generally much more harsh.

Accuracy

Every historical account or record has its own biases and influencing factors, but these are particularly important to consider when exploring the Witch Trials.

Firstly we are relying on surviving records only. The Witch Trials date to 400+ years ago and it’s almost certain that more records were made and lost to time. What’s more, it’s extremely likely that at least some cases and ‘trials’ went unrecorded; not everyone could read and write, and it’s possible some cases were dealt with by the village community rather than the courts.

Even looking at court records has its pitfalls. Before Henry VIII’s Witchcraft Act in 1542 witchcraft itself was not a crime, but it was declared heresy, meaning it could be dealt with through the ecclesiastical (church) courts. We need to be aware that records are held in multiple places, and witchcraft accusations and trials may be under another crime.

For these reasons we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of statistics, though researchers have reached probable estimates.

Section One: Origins

To understand how the witch hunts came about, it’s important to look at the history of witchcraft in law, how it became a death penalty eligible offence, and how the law was used en masse.

Witchcraft…A Capital Offence?

Practising witchcraft was not a capital offence to begin with. However, in 1484 Pope Innocent III declared witchcraft as heresy, and this was a capital offence. Despite this capital punishments for witchcraft were extremely rare; between 1066 and 1560 only six people had been executed for witchcraft in England, the preference being to exorcise evil spirits.

Witchcraft…A Secular Crime.

Note: Spelling was not standardised until much later and words were spelt how they sounded. When reading the legislation transcripts read the words phonetically to make it easier.

It wasn’t until 1542, under Henry VIII, that witchcraft specifically was made a crime. “The Bill Against Conjurations & Witchcrafts and Sorcery and Enchantments”, transcript available here, made it illegal to create or use invocations, conjurations of spirits, witchcrafts, enchantments and sorceries to find money or treasure, harm or destroy somebody, incite adultery/unlawful love, for any unlawful purpose, to despite Christ, procuring money, to dig up or pull down any Cross (symbol), or to find lost or stolen items.

The Witchcraft Act (1542) also removed the benefit of clergy for witchcraft crimes. Benefit of clergy allowed clergymen to claim exemption from secular courts, instead being tried in ecclesiastical courts. This means that for the first time in English history, witchcraft was now a crime to be tried in normal courts - the same ones used for all other crimes such as murder and theft. It was punishable by death and forfeiting of property, land and possessions.

The Witchcraft Act (1542) was repealed by Edward VI, Henry VIII’s son, in 1547.

Return Of The Witchcraft Act

In 1563, during the reign of Elizabeth I, The Witchcraft Act (1563) was passed: “An Act Against Conjurations, Enchantments and Witchcrafts”. You can see the full transcript here. The Act stated that, in cases where witchcraft resulted in death, it is punishable by death. However, in lesser cases (i.e. not resulting in death), it is punishable by a term of imprisonment.

After the 1563 Act convictions for homicide caused by witchcraft began appearing. Out of 1158 homicide victims 228 were suspected to be caused by witchcraft. 157 people were accused of killing with witchcraft, of which around half were acquitted. Only nine of the accused were men.

The Death Penalty Scope Widens

Perhaps the most well-known Witchcraft Act is the one passed in 1604 under James I. “An Act Against Conjuration, Witchcraft and Dealing With Evil and Wicked Spirits”, transcript here, also made invoking evil spirits and communing with familiars punishable by death. It also changed the penalty for ‘lesser’ cases of witchcraft, as mentioned above, to one year imprisonment, and afterwards one day in the pillory on market day once a quarter. Anyone found to be a second-time offender, even of ‘lesser’ witchcraft, will be put to death. This was the act that Matthew Hopkins, the infamous self-styled Witchfinder General, enforced.

A Total U-Turn

By 1735 attitudes to witchcraft had changed, with many influential people stating it was outright impossible. New legislation was needed! The Witchcraft Act (1735), transcript here, repealed the 1604 act in England and the 1563 one in Scotland as it applied to the whole of Great Britain. Put simply, nobody could be accused or convicted of witchcraft. However, you could be accused or convicted of pretence of witchcraft, in other words, leading people to believe you are using magic. Fortune-telling, making what would now be called psychic predictions, or using psychic powers in some way are all mentioned in the Act as example offences. The punishment was one year in prison, followed by one hour in the pillory on market day per quarter year. The Courts are also given the option to impose sureties, with prison time for those who break the terms.

1735, So That’s It Right?

Technically, no. The 1735 Act remained in place until 1951…yes that recent! The “Fraudulent Mediums Act” (1951) repealed the previous 1735 Act and prohibited a person from claiming to be a psychic, medium or other spiritualist while attempting to deceive and to make money from the deception. The exception was if this was solely for entertainment. This was then repealed in 2008 by the “Consumer Protections From Unfair Trading Regulations Act” implementing EU changes. This is the law still in effect today!

How Did The Witch Hunts Actually Come About?

Well, James I had a lot to do with it, as did Matthew Hopkins. It’s safe to say that King James I was obsessed with witches. He travelled to Scotland to attend trials and wrote books on the subject, perhaps the most famous being Daemonologie (1597 - Scotland, 1603 - England). In it King James I pitches witchcraft against Christianity, outlining the reasons to persecute witches under canonical law and endorsing witch-hunting in Christian society.

Matthew Hopkins, self-appointed Witchfinder General, and John Stearne, his associate, used the ideas from Daemonologie to hunt and track-down witches in East Anglia. Hopkins holds the record for the most ‘witches’ hanged, with his investigations making up an estimated 20% of witchcraft executions in England from the 15th to 18th centuries…and he was only in ‘business’ for three years.

Were The Trials Lawful?

Well, this varies from a certain yes to a grey-area maybe. If the behaviour or act was illegal at the time it was committed then it was lawful to bring the accused to trial. In many cases this is quite simple to determine - is there a law prohibiting it or not?

Prior to 1542 people could not be tried for witchcraft, but witchcraft was an act of heresy, so they could lawfully be tried for heresy. Once the 1542 Witchcraft Act came into effect witchcraft was a crime. This means that it was lawful to bring someone to trial for alleged witchcraft. The problems arise when it comes to how the accused was tried or how evidence was gathered. This is where we get into the grey-area maybe side of things, as we’ll see later.

East Anglia - A Witchcraft Hotspot?

Witches appeared to be more prevalent in the Eastern counties, particularly in isolated communities. Most were individuals, though some larger groups were found in Maldon, Hadleigh, Canewdon and Coggeshall, although they were not organised enough to have been covens. Between 1560 and 1675, over 650 Essex men and women were accused of being or consorting with witches. Some were hanged, others died whilst awaiting trial, but many were found not guilty. Granted, the experience wasn’t going to be pleasant, life after acquittal was probably also going to be rough, and the chances of you being accused again were high, but many of the accused were acquitted.

It is unlikely that there were actually more cases of ‘witchcraft’ in East Anglia compared to the rest of England. Instead, the high figures are likely due to Matthew Hopkins and his associates, and the methods they used to get confessions. As part of the confession suspects were usually forced to accuse many others, creating a snowball effect.

Section Two: The First Trial

Although witchcraft laws had been in place for decades, the first trial wasn’t until 1566, and it happened right here in Essex.

Note: As we mentioned, records can be unreliable so while this was certainly one of the first trials, it may not have been the first.

The first trial was held at Chelmsford on 26th and 27th of July 1566, and confession transcriptions are available here. The accused were Elizabeth Francis, Agnes Waterhouse and Agnes’ daughter, Joan Waterhouse, all from Hatfield Peverel.

Elizabeth Francis

Content warning: Mentions of miscarriage, abortion, death of a child.

Elizabeth came from Hatfield Peverel, and her testimony began with her explaining how she became a witch. At only twelve years old her Grandmother, Eve, taught her the art of witchcraft. Eve had “counselled her to renounce God and his word, and to give of her blood to Satan” and then created a white spotted cat for Elizabeth. She told her granddaughter to keep the cat in a basket and feed it bread and milk. The cat’s name? Satan. It’s important to note that Eve had died by the time of the trial, and so could not defend the accusations.

Elizabeth’s first command to her new familiar was “that she might be rich and to have goods”. The cat, supposedly speaking in “a strange hollow voice (but such as she understood by use)” agreed, asking what she would like. Elizabeth asked for sheep, and Satan brought 28 black and white sheep into her pasture. The sheep stayed with Elizabeth for a while but eventually “did all wear away” without explanation.

Once she had received the sheep Elizabeth moved on to her next request - that the wealthy Andrew Byles would be her husband. Once again Satan the cat agreed, but only if Elizabeth would allow Andrew to abuse her. Elizabeth agreed. Things didn’t quite go to plan though; “after when this Andrew had thus abused her he would not marry her”. In return Elizabeth commanded Satan to “waste [Andrew’s] goods”, which he did. Still unsatisfied, Elizabeth made a further command for Satan to “touch [Andrew’s] body, which he forthwith did and wherefore he died”.

According to Elizabeth, Satan required a drop of her blood each and every time she commanded him. She did this by pricking herself in various places, which were still visible as red marks at trial.

After Andrew had died Elizabeth thought she was pregnant and asked the cat to “destroy it”. Ever obliging, Satan give her a herb and drink which “destroyed the child forthwith”. She then asked for another husband and the cat suggested Francis [surname] - her husband at the time of the trial - although he wasn’t as wealthy as Andrew. Once again Satan’s agreement came with a condition - that she slept with Francis. Elizabeth did as requested and conceived a daughter, born “a quarter of a year after they were married”.

Life was not as Elizabeth had hoped. Instead of a quiet and peaceful marriage the couple were “stirred…to much unquietness and moved to swearing and cursing”. In an attempt to quieten things down Elizabeth commanded the cat to kill her [approximately] 6-month-old child, which he did. Still annoyed by the noise and disharmony, she commanded Satan to make her husband lame in one leg. It’s noted that Francis was still lame at the time of the trial and his leg could not be healed.

In her testimony, Elizabeth says she gave her neighbour, Agnes Waterhouse, the cat in return for a cake, passing on the same instructions: call him Satan, give him her blood and feed him bread and milk.

Agnes Waterhouse

In the confession transcripts Agnes is referred to as “Mother Waterhouse”. This was common and married women are referred to as “Goodwife”, “Widow” or “Mother”. Agnes was 64 at the time of the trial.

Agnes agreed with Elizabeth’s account of how she got the cat. To test his abilities she first asked him to kill one of her hogs, which he did, so she rewarded him with a chicken and gave him a drop of her blood. As we saw in Elizabeth’s testimony, Agnes pricked herself in various places to do this, though the transcript does say the marks were “yet to be seen”.

She fell out with Father Kersey and so commanded Satan to kill three of his hogs. Agnes released the cat and later he returned, confirming the hogs were dead. Once again he was rewarded with a drop of blood and a chicken. According to Agnes both times there was no trace of the chicken - no bones and no feathers.

Agnes then fell out with Widow Gooday, so asked Satan to drown Gooday’s cow, which he did, and was rewarded the same as before. She also had him kill three of her neighbour’s geese after another disagreement. Other instances include having Satan spoil milk and cheese, kill a neighbour and kill her husband.

As a further reward or show of gratitude for Satan, Agnes said she would say her prayers in Latin on the days she asked him to do things. She would also turn him from a cat to a toad this way. According to her, Satan would not allow her to pray in English, which was law at the time.

Shortly before being caught Agnes went to Breakstead, but Satan said she should return home quickly as there will be “great trouble, and that she should be either hanged or burned shortly”.

Joan Waterhouse

Joan Waterhouse was the daughter of Agnes and was 18 at the time of the trial.

Joan starts by saying that Agnes wanted to teach her how to use the cat the winter before, but she refused. Apparently she only saw Satan once “in her mother’s hand” in the form of a toad. Joan notes that she saw Agnes command the creature, calling it Satan. Apart from this one time Joan says she had no part in witchcraft, never using the creature and never learning the art.

That was until her mother left for Breakstead. Joan ran out of bread and asked a neighbour’s 12-year-old child, Agnes Brown, for some bread and cheese. It’s unclear whether Brown refused or didn’t give as much as Joan wanted, but either way Joan was displeased. She asked Satan to get her what she wanted, agreeing with his demand for her body and soul in return. The creature, in the shape of a black dog with horns, asked Brown for the goods to which she refused, but he took them anyway and began haunting little Agnes Brown.

Further Evidence: Agnes Brown

12-year-old Agnes Brown gave damning evidence in the trial, and after her testimony Agnes Waterhouse and Joan Waterhouse were both called to the stand a second time. When asked if she was guilty of killing a man Agnes Waterhouse confessed.

Agnes Brown said she had been churning butter when a creature came to her. It was similar to a black dog but had a face like an ape, a short tail, horns and a silver chain and whistle around his neck. The creature was holding the milkhouse door key in its mouth and was jumping about, eventually sitting on a nettle. Frightened, Agnes asked what it wanted, to which the creature replied butter. Agnes said she didn’t have any but the creature insisted, eventually letting himself into the milkhouse, taking some butter and leaving. Afterwards Agnes told her Aunt, who promptly called the Priest, who told Agnes to pray and “call on the name of Jesus”. The next day the creature returned with the milkhouse door key. Remembering the Priest’s advice Agnes said “in the name of Jesus, what hast thou there”. The creature left the key, saying they were evil words as they were spoken in Jesus name, and left. Agnes states the creature returned another two times, leaving when she called on the name of Jesus.

The next time the creature came to Agnes he was carrying a knife and threatened to kill her. Agnes asked who his dame [owner] was, to which he nodded and “wagged his head to your house, Mother Waterhouse”. The Queen’s attorney asked Agnes Waterhouse what she had demanded of the creature, but she only replied asking what type of knife it was. Agnes Brown said it was a dagger, prompting Agnes Waterhouse to call her a liar as she had no such knife. She also referred to Joan’s testimony that the creature looked like a dog when it came to her, not with an ape-like face as Agnes Brown said. The Queen’s attorney asked Agnes (W) to call the creature now, offering her freedom in return. Agnes (W) said she couldn’t as she no longer had power over it. The attorney then asked Agnes (W) when the cat last sucked her blood, to which she replied never. At the attorney’s request the jailer lifted her kercher [head covering] revealing varying spots all over her face. The attorney asked Agnes (W) the question again with her reply changing to “not this fortnight”. The jury retired.

The Verdict

Elizabeth Francis was sentenced to imprisonment and the pillory. In 1579 she was again accused of witchcraft, confessed, and was hanged.

Agnes Waterhouse was hanged on 29th July, two days after the trial ended. She made a final confession before her death, saying she had been a witch for 25 years and had used witchcraft for “many abominable deed”. Agnes further confessed to having sent Satan to her neighbour, Wardol, asking him to harm Wardol and cause trouble. However Wardol’s faith was too strong so Satan couldn’t do it. Before being hanged she repented and asked for forgiveness from the world and mercy from God.

Joan Waterhouse was acquitted.

Section Three: The Witchfinder General

The front piece from Matthew Hopkin’s book The Discovery of Witches, published in 1647. It shows Hopkins witnessing suspected witches identifying their familiars.

Self-styled Witchfinder General, Matthew Hopkins, and his associates were responsible for 20% of all witchcraft executions from the 15th to 18th centuries, despite only being in business for three years. He was active from 1644 to 1647 and used questionable methods to investigate suspected witches (see section four of this article).

Early Life

Matthew was the fourth of six children and the son of James Hopkins, a Puritan clergyman in Wenham, Suffolk. Records are unclear on his date of birth, but it was sometime between 1619 and 1622. Little is known about Matthew before 1644 as no contemporary records for him have survived. We do know that he could read and write Latin and English, and that he studied marine law in Belgium and Holland. Some reports suggest Matthew was a lawyer, but there is no surviving evidence for this. It’s more likely that he was a solicitor’s clerk.

The Move To Essex

In the early 1640s Matthew Hopkins moved to Manningtree. He is linked to the Thorn Inn at Mistley, but it’s unclear whether this was as owner, co-owner or patron. Manningtree, meaning ‘many trees’, was a small parish of some twenty-two acres at the time.

The Witch Hunts: Influences

In his Discovery of Witches, published 1647, Hopkins says his ability to find a witch came from his wealth of experience. Conveniently, he doesn’t really give any specifics of that experience, other than a couple of occasions where he supposedly eavesdropped on witch meetings:

“In March 1644, he had some seven or eight of that horrible sect of Witches living in the Towne where he lived, a Towne in Essex called Manningtree, with diverse other adjacent Witches of other towns, who every six weeks in the night (being always on the Friday night) had their meeting close to his house, and had their solemn sacrifices there offered to the Devil, one of whom this Discoverer heard speaking to her imps and bid them go to another Witch, who was thereupon apprehended”.

We do know that Hopkins was influenced by King James I’s ‘Demonologie’ (1597), Thomas Potts’ ‘The Wonderful Discovery of Witches In The County of Lancaster’ (1613) and Richard Bernard’s ‘A Guide To Grand Jurymen’ (1627, 1629). In fact it’s probable that these texts formed the majority of his knowledge and experience.

The Witch Hunts: A Perfect Storm

It is difficult to see how one person could drum up such a ‘witch frenzy’. However, Matthew Hopkins was not your ordinary person; he had some education, had funds and connections, and came from a well-known, well-liked family. The political situation at the time also contributed.

From 1642 to 1651 the English Civil War raged. Essex was a backbone area for the Roundheads (in support of Parliamentarians). Hopkins was able to use the resulting tension, fear and uncertainty to his advantage - it’s much easier to scaremonger when the crowd is already unsettled. There’s also documentation stating the Hopkins used his links to the Thorn Inn for striking up conversations and sharing information - prime space for gaining supporters.

Hopkins’ Associates

Matthew Hopkins may the be most infamous person from the Witch Hunts, but he didn’t work alone. Hopkins employed John Stearne, a rabid puritan, and Mary Phillips, a midwife, both from Manningtree, as searchers. They were paid one pound a day (roughly £117 today) for their troubles.

Methods

Matthew Hopkins and his team usually followed the same steps of prosecution. First, they would use local rumour or suspicion to condemn a witch. Hopkins also claimed to have a “Devils List”, naming all English witches in code. Once condemned the person was tortured until they confessed, usually implicating several others as part of the confession. We discuss some of these methods in section four. His reputation, together with the biased view of the majority that the accused was guilty, resulted in a very high conviction rate.

Pay: A Motive?

Hopkins charged the local parish £1 (roughly £117 today) for every witch found. It is thought that he collected around £1000 in fees during the two or three years he operated. That’s about £117,546 today! Many modern works strongly suggest that pay, rather than ridding the country of witches, was a motive for Hopkins. There’s no doubt that Hopkins had a hatred for witchcraft and sought to rid it from the area, but even sources at the time suggested he had little to no evidence for some of those he charged.

Death

Hopkins died on 12th August 1647. He was last seen in the spring of 1647; his former sidekick John Stearne is reported to have announced, “I am certain he died peacefully in Manningtree after a long sickness of Consumption” [tuberculosis]. There is a record of Hopkins’ burial in the Mistley parish register, showing he was buried a few hours after his death at St Mary The Virgin Church in Mistley. Contrary to some portrayals in movies, he was in his mid-twenties when he died.

According to local legend his ghost haunts the area near Mistley Pond, especially on Friday nights close to witch sabbats.

Section Four: Identification and Evidence Gathering

Content warning: This section mentions forcible inspection of a person’s body including genitalia, pricking people with needles and drowning or near-drowning.

Evidence

People of the time thought they had definitive evidence - you couldn’t convict someone on a single accusation. Take the first trial as an example: Elizabeth was convicted on her own confession, marks or spots on her body and her husband’s lameness. Agnes Waterhouse was convicted on her confession, her daughter’s testimony, the testimony of Agnes Brown and the marks and spots visible on her body. Both had at least one accusation, and the marks on their bodies were seen as evidence of blood-giving to their familiar. Additionally, both had witnesses confirming their witchcraft acts. This means there was physical evidence, witness testimony and corroborating accounts of their crime, so why is this evidence now refuted? To answer that question we need to look at how that evidence was gathered.

Torture

It’s worth noting that unlike Scotland and mainland Europe, confessions gained through torture were not admissible at trial, and this is why England has less witchcraft convictions. That being said, many methods used to gain confessions, while not considered torturous at the time, certainly would be today. This begs the question - how reliable was any of the evidence given at trial?

Marks Of The Devil

According to superstition and lore of the time, a witch would reward or gift their imps, spirits, familiars or other devilish being with blood in return for their deeds. This would leave a long-lasting mark and these were referred to as teats. This is what the court thought the “marks and spots” were on Elizabeth and Agnes in the 1566 trial.

There were no guidelines on what this mark would look like - anything goes! The only reasoning Matthew Hopkins makes in his ‘Discovery of Witches’, transcript here, is that the marks appear in an unusual place as judged by him, his associates, a Justice of the Peace or person of authority. Though men were accused of witchcraft, the vast majority of the accused were female, and body searches frequently focused on the “secret areas” and genitalia. The justification was that the Devil would leave a mark in a place not easily seen. Blemishes, warts, moles, cuts and grazes counted, and since fleas, lice and disease were commonplace there was no shortage of evidence. As seen in the 1566 trial, this was admissible evidence with little to no consideration of the true cause.

Even people at the time were questioning the validity of this method, with many suggesting Devil marks so closely resembled natural ones it was impossible to tell them apart. To this Hopkins replied that experience and a general consensus amongst the group present was enough.

Witch Prickers

Another method was to prick the victims with a long needle to see if they bled. If not, it was taken as a sure sign that they were in league with Lucifer. In some cases, a ‘trick’ pricker was sometimes used, with a retractable needle that went up into the wooden handle when pressed against the flesh, thus causing no pain and leaving no wound. It would appear to those witnessing the test that the individual did not bleed, and so was a witch. This demonstrates just how open to corruption witchcraft evidence was - the integrity of the tester, witch-finder or other official was never questioned.

Watching (Walking)

Now here’s a method that was called torture at the time, but we’ll explain how those responsible got around that technicality. The sole aim for watching was sleep deprivation, with the accused forcibly kept awake for several days and nights. It’s also known as walking because those guarding the accused would make them continually walk up and down their cells without any rest or sleep. Dazed, confused, and sometimes experiencing hallucinations a person would readily confess to anything in order to rest. There are accounts of people being walked until their feet were raw, bleeding and blistered.

So how did they get around the accusations of torture? Well, they just denied it. This was actually directly addressed in Hopkins’ Discovery of Witches, which answered common concerns about his methods and practice - a sort of witch hunt FAQ, if you will.

“It was in the same beginning of this discovery, and the meaning of walking of them at the highest extent of cruelty, was only they to walke about themselves the night they were watched, only to keepe them waking: and the reason was this, when they did lye or sit in a chaire, if they did offer to couch downe, then the watchers were only to desire them to sit up and walke about, for indeed when they be suffered so to couch, immediately comes their Familiars into the room and scareth the watchers, and heartneth on the Witch, though contrary to the true meaning of the same instructions, diverse have been by rusticall People, (they hearing them confess to be Witches) mis-used, spoiled, and abused, diverse whereof have suffered for the same, but could never be proved against this Discoverer to have a hand in it, or consent to it; and hath likewise been un-used by him and others, ever since the time they were kept from sleepe.”

Let’s pick this apart a little. According to Hopkins the accused were only made to walk the night they were being watched. They weren’t walked all day and night for several days (never mind that during the day they would have other tasks and need to be awake, or that they may be watched for several nights in a row). Hopkins and the watchers [guards] would have had no problem with the accused sleeping at night, but every time the accused would rest or sit down their familiars appeared, which scared the guards so they couldn’t allow the accused to rest. Essentially what Hopkins is saying is that it wasn’t torture, as the accused could rest during the day and it was necessary to stop them resting at night.

Ducking or Swimming

This is probably the most well-known method, and it was never going to end well. The accused would have their hands and feet (sometimes arms and legs) tied together and were thrown into the local pond (or river, stream, etc). If they floated they were guilty; if they sank they were innocent, though would likely die by drowning, hypothermia, flu or other respiratory illness.

The reasoning behind this method stems from religion. With your hands and feet bound you were entirely at the mercy of the water, not able to save yourself by swimming or climbing out. When you were baptised and accepted God you were anointed with water. However, when you began engaging in witchcraft and making devilish pacts you rejected God. As a result the water would not accept you into it, causing you to float. If you hadn’t engaged in witchcraft, the water would still accept you as part of it, causing you to sink. There were other variations to this reasoning, the main one being if you were a witch you would summon your imps and spirits, or use your magical powers, to stop yourself from sinking (and therefore drowning). Those ‘testing’ the witch would pull the accused back out once the outcome was clear but this was usually the start of a horrible ordeal, typically ending with a slow, painful death.

If you were guilty you’d be subject to trial and with evidence as damning as sinking in water, a (given-under-duress) confession and accusations from the locals it’s likely you’re going to be hanged. If you were innocent, and hadn’t drowned in the process, you’re probably going to die of infection or hypothermia. The water would have been dirty, probably stagnant, and you’d be fully clothed. In the dunking you’d inhale water, either through the shock of the cold temperature, the chaos of the process or your clothing covering your face as you sink. Even the smallest amount of dirty water in your lungs can cause infection, resulting in a slow death from pneumonia, secondary drowning or other respiratory illness. If you survive the potential drowning and infection you still have the temperature to contend with. English waters today rarely make it above 10 degrees, even on the hottest of days. Your clothing would be saturated and extremely heavy. To survive you would have to change clothes, dry off and warm up, all of which would take considerable time, and that’s if you even had the strength to muster it.

The integrity and morality of this method was questioned by people at the time, but once again Hopkins had his reasons. Firstly, he says, many people travelled quite a distance to be tried by this method, thinking they could survive the sinking and be found innocent. These people knew they had Devil’s marks and so knew they would be found by other methods, thus trying to trick the system. The Devil had suggested they put themselves forward, promising they would sink and be cleared, but when it came to it they found themselves deceived.

In modern eyes the more likely scenario is that life was utterly terrifying, never knowing when someone will accuse you and you’d be forced into confession or tried. Many probably wanted to prove their innocence of their own accord to avoid it, only for this to single them out as a suspect and found guilty some other way. It’s important to note that just because one method proved you innocent the ordeal may not stop. It’s not uncommon for suspects to then be subjected to another method, and another, until you were proven guilty or confessed. In these times, especially with witchcraft, you were likely guilty until proven innocent, and even then accusations would continue if you were found innocent. There are many records of people who were found innocent only to later be re-accused and found guilty.

Secondly, Hopkins says in his defence that these events weren’t used at trial as evidence. Even if true, the public spectacle of it would have made the jury aware of events, prejudicing their opinions.

So how accurate was the evidence?

If we judge accuracy with knowledge available at the time, i.e. witches did have Devil marks, couldn’t feel pain from pricking and floated on water despite being bound, the methods are flawed. There are many other reasons for these results that were not acknowledged or investigated. At the time it would be common knowledge and experience that people have many natural marks, especially given the prevalence of disease. As we have seen the witch prickers were rigged, and even if they didn’t have a retractable needle, inserting it into a calloused area would give the same result. Air may have been trapped in a person’s clothing as they were thrown into water, causing them to float. It’s also possible that a person may not sink to the bottom straight away, with clothing having to soak up the water to drag the person down. There is no guidance on time with the dunking method, leaving a large margin for error, and in almost all cases death or injury. Confessions were also usually gained under duress or sleep deprivation, making them unreliable and, for the most part, entirely false.

If we judge accuracy with the knowledge of today the answer is pretty clear: the methods were wholly inaccurate. We can see that identification methods were biased and used repeatedly to get the desired result. Those who were innocent usually died or sustained injury and disfigurement, and suspicion was based on rumour and feuds. The political situation was influential, with the chaos of civil war taking the attention of officials. Records show that some counties, like Essex, favoured witch finders such as Hopkins as it freed up their Judges and Magistrates for other matters. There were high pay-outs for each witch hanged, leaving the door wide open for corruption, rumour-spreading and scaremongering.

The act of bringing someone to trial for witchcraft was legal, but the evidence is questionable at best. The integrity of witchfinders, such as Hopkins, was never challenged by those in power, and it’s proven that they used torture and duress to get suspects to trial. Had those methods not been used it’s likely those suspects wouldn’t have been brought to trial.

Treatment Of Witches: Colchester Castle

Accused witches were thrown into prison while awaiting trial, and this was nothing like our modern-day idea of prison. The accused could be held for days, weeks, months and even years in some cases waiting for a trial date. Conditions were unsanitary and the prison cell was the perfect environment for disease to spread. Colchester Castle was first used as a prison in 1226, was the county prison until 1667 and was used until 1835. Many of Hopkins’ victims were held here and the Castle gives us a good idea of how accused witches were treated.

Images are from Visit Colchester.

The above images shows two of the three remaining cells in the dungeon of Colchester Castle (left) and the inside of a cell (right). Note the small size of the cells; records show over 30 people could be detained in each cell at one time. Prisoners were charged for everything - food, water, and having your chains removed for a while.

Section Five: The Chelmsford Trials, 1645

In 1645 thirty alleged witches were tried at Chelmsford. The confessions and testimonies are transcribed here. Matthew Hopkins gave evidence in the trial, explaining the confessions he gained from some of the accused.

Fifteen year old Rebecca West from Lawford was examined by Hopkins at the Thorn Inn. A month later, she and five other accused were further examined in the dungeon at Colchester Castle. One of the women was Elizabeth Clarke, a toothless, one-legged octogenarian from Manningtree.

Any lonely old soul who lived alone and talked to their pets seemed to be ideal fodder for Hopkins’ campaign of terror. Old Mother Clarke confessed that she had an imp called Vinegar Tom, who had a head like an ox and looked like a long legged greyhound with a long tail, until it turned itself into a four-year-old child without a head. She also claimed to have made a pact with the devil, "Which came to me, two or three times a week and lay with me like a man, he had the proportions of a man, and would say ‘Bessie I must lie with you’, and I never deny him".

Susan Cocke from St Osyth, another of the accused, had an imp that worried sheep. Other witches in the line up were Rebecca West's mother Anne, Margaret Landish and Rose Hallybread, who had imps named 'Elemauzer', 'pyewacket', 'Peck in the crown' and 'grizel Greedigut'. Rebecca stated that she was taken by her mother to Mrs Clarke's house, where the devil appeared and promised to marry her if she would be an obedient wife, then promptly took her to bed.

More devilish deeds came to light in the witness box. Margaret Landish confessed, "I had been eighte or nine weekes since, laying sicke by the fireside, something came up to my bodie and sucked on my privvye parts, it was an imp and Susan Cocke must have sent it". She got a 'Lord’s pardon' and promptly died of the plague whilst waiting to be released. On Friday 25th July 1645, fourteen of the accused were hanged at the Gallows Field in Primrose Hill.

The Chelmsford trials were great publicity for Hopkins and after the successful convictions he was in high demand. Naturally, he charged an absolute fortune for his services, reasoning that witch-finding was an art requiring expert knowledge. This is also when he declared himself The Witchfinder General, endorsed by Parliament, though it actually wasn’t at all. Hopkins might have required some parliamentary safe papers, but at no point was there a position of “Witchfinder General” or equivalent.

Section Six: The Accused

This section goes through each of the accused in chronological order, complete with details of the accusations if available.

1560, Joan Haddon (Witham) was accused of being a common witch. It was alleged she had bewitched a wife, a man and many others, fraudulently gaining money. She was pardoned.

1560, John Smythe/Samond/Samon/Salmon (Danbury) was accused of witchcraft on multiple occasions, the first being in 1560. He was a beer-brewer and “being a common wizard, bewitched a man and a woman, who thereupon languished, the former for 3 weeks, the latter for 3 months, when they died”. His sentence isn’t recorded, but as he appears in later records we know he wasn’t hanged.

1561, John Devon (Newhall) was accused of witchcraft. No further details are available.

1561, Margaret Hosie (Shopland) allegedly used witchcraft to burn a calf “to preserve the slyenck”. In court she said she was an honest woman and could not be paid. There is no definition of “slyenck”, and it’s likely a word lost to time. Some researchers have suggested that she burnt the calf in retaliation for not being paid. Whether this was for witchcraft work or other things remains unclear. Margaret was fined 6d (approximately £6 today), to be paid to the poor, and dismissed.

1561, John Smythe/Samond/Samon/Salmon (Danbury) (previously accused in 1560) No details of this accusation are available, but we know he was accused a third time later on, so he wasn’t put to death.

1564, Elizabeth Lowys/Lowes (Great Waltham) was accused of bewitching John Wodley, aged 3 months. She was indicted.

1564, William Rande (Great Totham) was accused of using witchcraft to cause “a cow to langish until 17 January”. He died of the plague on 30th October 1564.

1565, Anne Vale (White Roding) was accused by John Berde, husbandman [farmer], of using witchcraft to kill pigs on 28th October.

1566, “One” Clarke (Witham) was accused though there are no further details.

1566, Emma Crosse (Manningtree) suspected of witchcraft, no further details.

1566, Agnes Duke (Hatfield Peverel) was found guilty of witchcraft (no details) and found to have no goods (to forfeit as part of the punishment). She was also pregnant.

1566, “Mother” Eve (Hatfield Peverel) was accused by her granddaughter, Elizabeth Fraunces/Francis, of teaching her witchcraft at the age of twelve. At the time of the trial Eve was deceased.

1566, Elizabeth Fraunces/Francis (Hatfield Peverel) was accused of bewitching two people and sentenced to a year imprisonment plus time in the pillory.

1566, Eve Fraunces/Francis (Hatfield Peverel) unclear if this is “Mother” Eve recorded twice, no further details.

1566, Elizabeth Fullar (Rayleigh) was accused of witchcraft but denied it. No further details.

Alice Gardiner (Boreham) allegedly gave counsel to a witch.

1566, Gyles (Springfield) accused and denied it. No further details.

1566, William Harris (Creeksea), “One” Hawes (Steeple), Rev. Lone (Creeksea), and “One” Richmond (Creeksea) all found themselves accused. Rev. Lone witnessed Mr. Hawes calling himself a diviner and a soothsayer. William Harris accused Mr. Hawes of either being a diviner or having a familiar. ‘Richmond’, another diviner, agreed, warning against Hawes as “a naughtie man”. The case went to Court to be tried.

1566, “Mother” Lewin (Bulphan) was accused of witchcraft but denied.

1566, “Widow” Middleton (Boreham) was accused of witchcraft, which she denied. The case was dismissed.

1566, “One” Nethersall (Maldon) was accused of witchcraft and denied.

1566, Joan Knowlar (West Tilbury) was accused but denied.

1566, Margery Skelton (Little Wakering) accused and denied.

1566, “Widow Stokes” (Danbury) is referred to as a witch but without further details.

1566, Robert Wallys (Hatfield Peverel) was accused of witchcraft but claimed Benefit of Clergy. However, he was still found guilty and found to have no goods (which would be forfeited as punishment).

1566, Agnes Waterhouse/Waterhowse (Hatfield Peverel) was accused of witchcraft, implicated by her daughter, Joan Waterhouse/Waterhowse, and the neighbour’s daughter, Agnes Brown. Agnes was found guilty and hanged.

1566, Joan Waterhouse/Waterhowse (Hatfield Peverel) was accused of witchcraft but acquitted.

1566, “Mother” Wheatley (Springfield) was accused of witchcraft but denied it.

1566, Lora Wynchester (Hatfield Peverel) accused with no further details.

1567, Alice Atrum (Coggeshall) was accused but no further details are available.

1567, Joan Cocke (Kelvedon) supposedly confessed to Archdeacon Cole but fled afterwards. In Kelvedon she is alleged to have used witchcraft to make Richard Sherman lame.

1567, “Goodwife” Noble (Kelvedon) daughter of Joan Cocke, was suspected to have used witchcraft to kill one cow and caused two others “to give milk of all colours”.

1567, Joan Osborne (Hatfield Peverel) was accused but no other details are available.

1567, Alice Prestmarye (Great Dunmow) [Content warning: Suicide] was indicted on 1st February 1567. She allegedly bewitched Edward Parker “putting him in peril of his life, so that his life is despaired of” [he is not expected to survive much longer']. Alice pled not guilty, but was found guilty and imprisoned at Colchester Castle. As we mentioned, prison conditions were terrible and Alice contracted a fever on 1st May. This lasted until the 6th May, when she died, as confirmed by the coroner on the 7th. Her husband, John Prestmarye, committed suicide on 30th January 1567 by hanging himself from a walnut tree in his garden with a halter. His inquest was held on the same day as her trial.

1567, “Goodwife” Ram (Cressing) was accused but no other details are available.

1568, Thomas Bridge (Little Horkesley) accused but no further details are available.

1568, Robert Ellys (White Notley) was accused but no other details are available.

1568, Alice Swallow (Little Baddow) was indicted on 2nd May for using witchcraft to kill Elizabeth, daughter of William Goores, yeoman. She pled not guilty but was found guilty. Alice was further indicted on 20th June for bewitching John Daggnell (Little Baddow) “so that his life was despaired of” [he was not expected to survive much longer]. We know she was also accused later on, so wasn’t sentenced to death.

1568, John Wentworth (Little Horkesley) was accused but no other details are available.

1569, Alice Swallow (Little Baddow) (also accused in 1568) was indicted on 1st April 1569 for using witchcraft to kill Alice Basticke. She pled not guilty, but once again was found guilty at trial.

1570, Alice Bambricke (Little Baddow) accused but no further details

1570, 'One' Cobham (Romford), accused but no further details

1570, Agnes Coples (Romford) called Gentrie's wife a witch in anger, pled guilty, sentence: penance

1570, 'Mother' Malter (Theydon Mount) accused but no further details

1570, Alice Swallow (Little Baddow) indicted 27th February for using witchcraft to kill four horses, worth 20 marks, belonging to John Francke. Pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1570, Anne Vicars (Navestock) accused but no further details

1571, Elizabeth Egles (Fifield) [now spelt Fyfield] accused but no further details

1572, Alice Chaundeler (Maldon) allegedly used witchcraft to kill Mary Fletcher (8 years old) on 3rd July. She was “arraigned upon another indictment later”.

1572, Agnes Francys (Hatfield Peverel) accused but no further details. Remanded in jail and died of the plague on 10th December 1573.

1572, Elizabeth Francis (Hatfield Peverel) accused but no further details. She was previously accused in 1566.

1572, 'Mother' Miller (Havering) accused but no further details

1572, Katherine Pullen (Tollesbury) accused of using witchcraft to kill Joan, wife of John Dannynge. She pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1572, William Skelton (Little Wakering) accused alongside his wife, Margery Skelton (Little Wakering), of using witchcraft to cause Agnes Collen (aged 18 months) to languish for a long time. Both pled not guilty were found guilty

1572, John Smythe (Danbury) accused alongside his wife Joan Symthe (Danbury), no further details. John was previously accused on 1560 and 1561.

1572, Agnes Steadman (Halstead) allegedly “bewitched three cows worth £4, belonging to John Rome so that for three days they languished” on 1st May. She pled not guilty but was found guilty. On 7th June she allegedly “bewitched a cow worth 30s., belonging to Owin Norman so that it became violently ill”. She pled not guilty but was found guilty. On 1st July she “bewitched Sibel Bentall, wife of Thomas Bentall yeoman there, so that for the space of twelve days she was violently ill and despaired of her life”. Again Agnes pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1573, Benjamin Fairstead (Colchester) accused but no further details

1573, "Mother" Humfrey (Colchester) accused but no further details

1573, Elizabeth Taylor (Thaxted) accused but no further details

1573, Robert Wallys (Chishall) accused but no further details. Previously accused and found guilty in 1566.

1573, Helen Wedon (Colchester) accused but no further details

1574, Joan Allen (Leigh) accused but no further details

1574, Anne Brewer (Dunton) accused but no further details

1574, Alice Chaundeler (Maldon) accused but no further details. Previously accused in 1572.

1574, Agnes Dix (Belchamp Walter) accused on 20th January of using witchcraft to kill Elizebeth Potter. Pled not guilty but was found guilty. On 1st May she was allegedly “bewitched Richard Hayward there whereof he languished for 14 days”. Pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1574, Cecilia Glasenbery (Barking) bewitched a person to death, found guilty and hanged.

1574, Alice Hynckson (Thaxted) remanded in jail and died of the plague on 4th May 1575.

1574, Alice Reade (Lawford) accused but no further details

1574, Margaret Saunders (Rainham) accused but no further details

1574, Katherine Slowman (Horndon) accused but denied it.

1574, Thomas Smith (Earls Colne) accused but no further details

1574, Joan Stubbinge (Ridgewell) accused and apprehended by constables [not the police as we know it - Essex County Constabulary wasn’t founded until 1840].

1574, Elizabeth Taylor (Thaxted) found guilty of bewitching a person to death and hanged.

1575, Margery Kirkham (Little Saling) accused but no further details

1575, John Kirkham (Little Saling) accused but no further details

1575, Joan Litelberie (Bradwell) accused and dismissed.

1575, Joan Turner (Romford) accused but no further details

1575, Juliana Woodward (Brentwood) accused but no further details

1576, Elizabeth Aylett (Brentwood) and Joan Baker alias Johnson (Brentwood), accused of bewitching “Anne, daughter of Richard Noke glover, whereby she was afflicted in diivers parts of her body”. Both pled not guilty but were found guilty and sentenced to one year imprisonment and four six-hour stints in the pillory.

1576, Agnes Bromley (Hatfield Peverel) used witchcraft to kill John Baker on 17th September.

1576, Agnes Berden (Elsenham) used witchcraft whereby the “Victim languished for three days, his body vexed and troubled with a strange disease”.

1576, Mary Belsted (Boreham) accused but no further details

1576, James Hopkinne (Hornchurch), accused but no further details

1576, Margery Pavett (High Roothing) allegedly used witchcraft to kill Margaret Gudgin. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1576, "Mother" Persorne (Navestock) accused but no further details

1576, Ethelreda Pilgrim (Colchester) accused but no further details

1576, John Plummer (Great Totham) accused but no further details

1576, Margaret Poole (Boreham) accused but no further details

1576, Joan Pynder (Barking) accused but no further details

1576, "Widow" Sawell (Stock) and Agnes Sawen (Stock) were accused of using witchcraft on Christopher Veale "so that his feet were and now remain curved”. Both were bound over [bailed] to keep the peace.

1576, Margaret Saunder (Rainham) allegedly used witchcraft to kill Christopher Wynter. Pled not guilty, found not guilty.

1576, Margery Spencer (Halstead) found guilty of bewitching a person to death and hanged.

1576, Joan Tomson (Great Totham) accused but no further details

1576, Mary Tomson (Great Totham) accused but no further details

1577, Richard Bale accused but no further details

1577, Henry Chitham (Great Bardfield) accused but no further details

1577, Robert Chambers (West Ham) accused but no further details

1577, Doctor Elkes accused but no further details

1577, Thomas Foster accused but no further details

1577, Joan Litelberie (Bradwell) accused and confessed. Previously accused but acquitted in 1575.

1577, Robert Mantell accused but no further details

1577, Agnes Sawen of Stock accused but no further details. Multiple previous accusations.

1577, Margery Sowman (Bradwell) accused but no further details

1577, Doctor Spacie accused but no further details

1578, Thomas Barker (Hockley) A surgeon, handed in bail not to conjure or invoke spirits.

1578, Miles Blomfield (Chelmsford) accused of using witchcraft to find lost goods.

1578, Jane Buxtone (Stratford Langthorne) accused but no further details

1578, Ralph Grange (Chipping Ongar) accused but no further details

1578, Margaret Ganne alias Welles (Borley) and Joan Norfolk (Borley), accused of using witchcraft to kill John Furmyn. Both pled not guilty.

1578, Margaret Ganzey (also known as Margaret Harvey) (Elsenham) accused but no further details.

1578, Katherine Howe committed to jail for witchcraft and died while imprisoned on 4th June.

1578, Brigit Leonard (Hornchurch) accused but no further details

1578, William Leonard (Hornchurch) accused but no further details

1578, Joan Prestmary (Great Dunmow) allegedly bewitched three calves and two cows, worth 5, belonging to Nicholsa Whale. On 1st March she pled not guilty and found not guilty. On 2nd April she appeared at court on suspicion of witchcraft. She was held in Colchester Castle while awaiting trial.

1578, Margery Stanton (Wimbish) allegedly bewitched a white gelding and a cow, led by “diabolical istigation”, causing their death. The indictment was insufficient.

1578, Cecily Turner (Roydon) allegedly used witchcraft to kill Robert Hill. Found not guilty.

1578, Thomasina Wood (Fingringhoe) accused but no further details

1579, Alice Aylett (Braintree) accused but no further details. Multiple allegations in 1580s.

1579, Brigitte Bradye (Doddinghurst) accused but no further details

1579, Joan Burton (Great Stambridge) accused but denied it. No further details

1579, Robert Crake (Boxted) accused but no further details

1579, William Elkin (North Weald) accused but no further details

1579, 'Goodwife' Elkin (North Weald) accused but no further details

1579, Elizabeth Fraunces (Hatfield Peverel) admitted to witchcraft and was hanged, details here. Previous conviction for witchcraft in 1556.

1579, Elizabeth Hardinge (Barking) accused of bewitching twelve “pullos vocatos coltes” [definition not known] and using witchcraft to injure Ellen Goode. She pled not guilty but was found guilty. Later allegations in 1580.

1579, Thomas Longe (Lambourne) accused but no further details

1579, Elizabeth Lorde (Hatfield Peverel) accused but no further details

1579, Joan Michell (Saffron Walden) accused but no further details

1579, Alice Mylles (Brightlingsea) accused of using witchcraft to kill Susan Thymble, 9 months. Pled not guilty but found guilty. More allegations in the 1580s.

1579, Elizabeth Moresby (Great Chesterford) accused but no further details

1579, Alice Nokes (Lamborne) accused of using witchcraft to kill Elizabeth Barsett. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1579, Joan Prestmary (Great Dunmow) and Richard Prestmary (Great Dunmow), husband and wife, accused of using witchcraft to kill Gabriel Symthe. Both pled not guilty but were found guilty and hanged.

1579, Margaret Rogers (Stratford Langthorne) accused of using witchcraft to kill Joan Warlowe. Pled not guilty, found not guilty.

1579, Ellen Symthe (Maldon) found guilty of bewitching a person to death and hanged, details here.

1579, Margery Stanton (Wimbish) accused but not executed, details here.

1580, Elizabeth Boxworthe (Stock) accused of witchcraft and denied it.

1580, Mr. Constance, no further details available.

1580, Joan Dowtie (Brightlingsea) accused of using witchcraft to kill Rose Cooke, pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1580, Joyce Duckerell (South Ockendon) accused of witchcraft and denied it.

1580, Elizabeth Hardynge (Barking) accused of using witchcraft to kill Elizabeth Miles, age 3, pled not guilty but was found guilty. Remanded in prison at Colchester Castle until her trial in July.

1580, Nicholas Johnson (Woodham Mortimer) no further details available.

1580, Thomas Lovekin no further details available.

1580, Robert Mantell no further details available.

1580, Jane Moresby (Great Chesterford) no further details available.

1580, Agnes Mylles (Dedham) no further details available.

1580, Humfrey Poles (Maldon) no further details available.

1580, Rose Pye (Canewdon) accused of using witchcraft to kill Joan Snow, age 1. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1580, 'One' Randell no further details available.

1580, John Symonde (Shenfield) no further details available.

1580, Ralph Spacey (Southminster) no further details available.

1580, Mr. Warner no further details available.

1581, Benneta Buxton (Stratford Langthorne), accused of using witchcraft to cause “great damage” to Thomas Hamond. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1581, Mary Greane (Earls Colne), no further details available.

1581, Alice Mylles (Brightlingsea), accused of using witchcraft to kill John Eyer, age 11. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1581, Margaret Rogers (Stratford Langthorne) accused of using witchcraft to kill Dorothy Warlowe, aged 8. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1581, Joan Turner (Stisted) no further details available.

1582, Rose Barton (Dedham) no further details available.

1582, The St Osyth Witches, Elizabeth Bennett, Alice Hunt, Alice Newman, Elizabeth Bennet and Margery Sammon, Joan Pechey, Agnes Glascock, Cicely Celles, Joan Turner, Elizabeth Ewstace, Anis Herd, Alice Manfield, Margaret Grevell and Alice Hunt's sister, Anne Swallow. Details here. Later tests showed the skeletons could not have been two of the St Osyth witches, as they were older than the time period.

1582, Agnes Bryant (Great Burstead) accused of spoiling 20 batches of beer. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1582, Henry Celles (Little Clacton) no further details available.

1582, Henry Driver (Colchester) no further details available.

1582, "Goodwife" George (Abberton) no further details available.

1582, Margaret Hobigge (Colchester) no further details available.

1582, Sarah Hobigge (Colchester) no further details available.

1582, Margaret Holbeye (Colchester) no further details available.

1582, Alice Mylles (Brightlingsea) accused of using witchcraft to kill Margary Camberlen. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1582, Elizabeth Newman (Wormingford) no further details available.

1582, Catherine Reve (Colchester) no further details available.

1582, Joan Robinson (Walton) no further details available.

1582, Michael Smythe (Ramsey) no further details available.

1582, Joyce Smythe (Ramsey) no further details available.

1583, Alice Aylett (Braintree) accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty

1583, Richard Barker (Romford), no further details available.

1583, Joan Barker (Romford) no further details available.

1583, Agnes Billinge (South Ockendon) no further details available.

1583, William Curswell (Layer-de-la-Haye) no further details available.

1583, Joan Curswell (Layer-de-la-Haye) no further details available.

1583, Margaret Hogden/Hogdine (Stebbing) accused of using witchcraft to kill.

1583, Joan Maidston imprisoned for “fascination” [presumably with witchcraft] and died there of the plague.

1583, Anne Smythe (Stebbing) held in jail but pardoned in 1585.

1584, Alice Bolton (St. Osyth) accused but found not guilty. No further details available.

1584, Elizabeth Lumney (St Osyth) accused but found not guilty. No further details available.

1584, Margery Barnes (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1584, Agnes Byllynge (South Ockendon) accused and didn’t confess. No further details available.

1584, Elizabeth Brooke (Great Leighs) accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty and hanged.

1584, Joan Burton (Great Stambridge) no further details available.

1584, Joan Cocke (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1584, Joan Colshall accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty and hanged.

1584, Joan Colson (East Mersea) accused of using witchcraft to kill, no further details available.

1584, Joan Dale (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1584, Joan Dickes, accused of witchcraft and died while imprisoned at Colchester Castle.

1584, Agnes Duke (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1584, Lucy Fyssher (Feering) accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty and hanged.

1584, Henry Gower (Quendon) no further details available.

1584, Stephan Hugrave (Abberton) accused of being a witch and causing neighbour disputes. He denied the charges.

1584, Alice Hugrave (Abberton) accused of witchcraft and denied it.

1584, 'Goodwife' Joyce (Stanford Rivers) no further details available.

1584, Thomas Kynge (South Hanningfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty and hanged.

1584, Margaret Lyttelberie (Bradwell-on-sea) no further details available.

1584, Jane Morrisbee (Great Chesterford) no further details available.

1584, Elizabeth Morrisbee (Great Chesterford) accused of using witchcraft to kill.

1584, Edmund Mansell (Feering) accused of using witchcraft to start a fire damaging a barn, stable, cart, wagon and other goods. Previous allegations in 1581.

1584, Joan Thatcher (Lawford) no further details available.

1584, Joan Thorock (Burnham) accused of using witchcraft to kill three people.

1585, William Asplin (Great Bardfield) no further details available.

1585, Anne Bonner (Burnham) accused of witchcraft and taken to Colchester Castle. Where she died from a fever.

1585, "Widow" Davye (Great Braxted) no further details available.

1585, Alice Dragge (Finchingfield) no further details available.

1585, Henry Driver (Colchester) no further details available.

1585, Alice Driver (Colchester) no further details available.

1585, Margaret Holbeye (Colchester) no further details available.

1585, Agnes Lea (Great Tey) no further details available.

1585, Cicily Makyn (Canewdon) accused of witchcraft but denied it. No further details available.

1585, Edward Mason (Great Bardfield) no further details available.

1585, Katherine Reve (Colchester) no further details available.

1585, John Shounke (Romford) no further details available.

1585, Agnes Thurrock (Burnham) accused of using witchcraft to harm John Lawe, husbandman [farmer]. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1585, Lettice Tybbold (Maplestead) no further details available.

1586, Alice Aylett (Braintree) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Multiple previous allegations.

1586, Elizabeth Barwick no further details available.

1586, Richard Cole (Hempstead) no further details available.

1586, Joan Foster (Broomfield) no further details available.

1586, Anne Joyce (Stanford Rivers) no further details available.

1586, Alice Newman no further details available.

1586, Joan Page (Great Chesterford) no further details available.

1586, Agnes Welles (High Ongar) no further details available.

1587, Joan Abbott (Mount Bures) no further details available.

1587, Robert Armon (Witham) no further details available.

1587, Alice Bust (Alphamstone) accused of using witchcraft to kill three hogs and a mare. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1587, Rose Clarens (Great Sampford) accused of using witchcraft to kill farm animals. Pled not guilty but found guilty and imprisoned for one year.

1587, Jane Cotsall (Upminster) no further details available.

1587, Mary Godfrey (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1587, John Gosse (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1587, 'Goodwife'Gosse (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1587, Joan Gibson (Messing) accused of bewitching a windmill. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1587, Margaret Harrison (Hawkwell) four separate accusations for bewitching farm animals. Accused of bewitching two pigs. Pled not guilty and found not guilty all four times.

1587, Lettice Harris (Witham) no further details available.

1587, Elizabeth Jakson no further details available.

1587, Edward Mason (Great Bardfield) no further details available.

1587, Alan Moore (Lexdon) no further details available.

1587, Alan Moore (Great Bardfield) no further details available. Unclear whether it’s the same Alan Moore as above.

1587, Joan Osborne (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1587, Joan Preston (Little Sampford) two accusations; one of bewitching pigs and another of bewitching Margaret Haukyn. Pled not guilty in both cases but found guilty and imprisoned for one year [each offence].

1587, Frances Preston (Little Sampford) and John Preston (Little Sampford), accused of using witchcraft to kill two cows. Both were found guilty. John was sentenced to one year imprisonment, Frances’ sentence is not legible.

1587, Elizabeth Pillgram (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1587, Thomas Smith (Earls Colne) no further details available.

1587, John Smythe (Danbury) accused of bewitching a cow. Multiple previous allegations.

1587, Thomas Wayland (Witham) no further details available.

1588, William Bennet (Finchingfield) and Edward Mason (Bardfield), both accused of using witchcraft in an attempt to make large amounts of money. Both pled not guilty, and both were found not guilty.

1588, Henry Barbor (Barking) confessed to being a witch.

1588, Ellinor Bett (Great Waltham) accused by Margerie Dawson of being a witch but there was insufficient evidence to convict at trial.

1588, "Widow" Dawson (Salcott) no further details available.

1588, Margaret Ellys (Pattiswick) no further details available.

1588, "Widow" Heard (Thorrington) no further details available.

1588, Elizabeth Harris (Witham) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1588, Katherine Harrys (Sible Hedingham) and Agnes Symthe alias Lawsell (Sible Hedingham), both accused of using witchcraft to kill. Both pled not guilty, but were found guilty.

1588, Katherine Hayre (Thorrington) no further details available.

1588, George Haven (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1588, Margaret Murdett (Great Braxted) no further details available.

1588, Joan Pakeman (Great Oakley) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Bleake. Pled not guilty and was found not guilty.

1588, "Widow" Tibboulde (Langham) no further details available.

1589, Joan Adcock, no further details available.

1589, Alice Aylett (Braintree) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Multiple previous allegations.

1589, Margery Banby (Kelvedon) no further details available.

1589, Ellen Bett (Great Waltham) accused of using witchcraft to kill twice. Pled not guilty but found guilty both times.

1589, Agnes Browne (Cressing) accused of using witchcraft with a sieve and shears to know if a baby will be male or female, and locate lost goods.

1589, Margaret Cony (Stisted) accused of using witchcraft to make a man blind in one eye and causing lameness in the leg of another man. Pled not guilty but found guilty both times.

1589, Avice Cony (Stisted) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1589, Joan Cony (Stisted) accused of using witchcraft to cause lameness, death and illness on four separate accounts. On all four she pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1589, Thomas Corde (Langdon Hills) no further details available.

1589, Anne Crabbe (Braintree) no further details available.

1589, Joan Dering (Theydon Garnon) accused of using witchcraft to cause illness. Pled not guilt and found not guilty.

1589, Richard Dunne (Holy Cross) and Agnes Dunne (Holy Cross), accused of bewitching a gelding, using witchcraft to cause illness (two counts). Both pled not guilty to all three charges and were found not guilty.

1589, Jenny Duke (Hatfield Peverel) no further details available.

1589, Agnes Duke (Hatfield Peverel) and John Heare alias Jenny Heare (Hatfield Peverel) both accused of using witchcraft to cause illness. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1589, Thomas Harding (Witham) no further details available.

1589, 'Goodwife' Harding (Witham) no further details available.

1589, Agnes Hamond (Hadleigh) no further details available.

1589, "Widow" Hare (Thorrington) no further details available.

1589, Joan Hinckson (Rochford) accused of being a witch but was dismissed after the Rector of Hawkwell brought a “certificate of her blamelessness”.

1589, Margaret Johnson (Asheldham) no further details available.

1589, Elizabeth Mott (Sible Hedingham) no further details available.

1589, Margaret Newman (Great Bentley) accused of using witchcraft to kill. No further details available.

1589, Henry Perrye (Great Sampford) no further details available.

1589, Joan Prentice (Sible Hedingham) claimed the Devil came to her at night in the shape of a Ferret and demanded her soul. She replied that only Jesus could give her soul, so the Devil asked for a drop of her blood, which she agreed to, offering a finger. In a series of encounters with the Ferret, Joan commanded it to spoil brewings, and hurt a child. She also implicated Elizabeth Whale and Elizabeth Mott in her confession, saying they both knew the Ferret creature. The were all found guilty based on the witness testimony of their children and sentenced to hang. Full details of the case can be found here.

1589, Margaret Prior (West Mersea) no further details available.

1589, 'Goodwife' Slaughter (Horndon) no further details available.

1589, 'Goodwife' Upney (Dagenham) no further details available.

1589, Joan Uptney (Dagenham) accused of using witchcraft to kill Joan Harwood and Alice Foster. Pled not guilty but found guilty on both cases.

1589, Francisca Uptney (Dagenham) no further details available.

1589, Agnes Whitland (Dagenham) accused of using witchcraft to kill a child but found not guilty.

1589, Margaret Wright (Havering) no further details available.

1589, John Warman (Great Bentley) no further details available.

1590, Alice Aylett (Braintree) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Multiple previous allegations.

1590, Alice Adcock (Dagenham) found guilty of witchcraft and hanged. No further details available.

1590, Alice Bateman (East Hanningfield) declared a witch after failing to receive Communion.

1590, Thomas Browninge (Coggeshall) accused of seeking help from witches but dismissed.

1590, John Badlye (Coggeshall) accused of seeking help from witches but dismissed.

1590, Thomas Browne (Coggeshall) accused of seeking help from witches but dismissed.

1590, 'Goodwife' Browne (Coggeshall) accused of seeking help from witches but dismissed.

1590, Joan Burton (Great Stambridge) accused of being a witch. No further details available, but it is noted that she was contumacious [stubbornly disobedient].

1590, John Church (Fordham) no further details available.

1590, 'Goodwife' Church (Fordham) no further details available.

1590, Anne Crabbe (Colne Engaine) accused of using witchcraft to cause Ellen Leppingwell’s right leg to rot off. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1590, Margaret Foster (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1590, John Gyles (Wivenhoe) no further details available.

1590, George Haven (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1590, 'Goodwife' Leonard (Coggeshall) accused of seeking help from witches but dismissed.

1590, 'Goodwife' Makins (Canewdon) no further details available.

1590, Joan Mose (Loughton) accused of using witchcraft to kill, found guilty and hanged.

1590, Agnes Mose (Loughton) no further details available.

1590, Francisca Pashall (South Hanningfield) no further details available.

1590, Margaret Snell (Thaxted) accused of using witchcraft to kill Rose Batt. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1590, John Wade (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1590, 'Goodwife' Wade (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1590, Robert Wright (Fordham) no further details available.

1590, 'Goodwife' Wright (Fordham) no further details available.

1590, Agnes Whitland (Dagenham) accused of using witchcraft to kill a pig. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1591, Agnes Whitland (Dagenham), accused of bewitching Margaret Rollup, aged 4, but found not guilty. A further accusation of bewitching a mare and a cow was made for which she was sentenced to a year in Colchester Castle.

1591, Bryant (Weeley) no further details available.

1591, John Carter (Weeley) no further details available.

1591, Margaret Coalle (Frating) no further details available.

1591, Juliana Cocke (Ashdon) accused of bewitching six farm animals, resulting in the death of most. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1591, Thomas Collyne (Maldon) accused of consorting with witches.

1591, “Widow" Coppres (Woodford) no further details available.

1591, Alice Crake (Finchingfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill Thomas Symson. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1591, Ellen Graye (Dagenham) no further details available.

1591, Ellen or Helen Gray accused of bewitching three neighbours resulting in the death of two, found guilty and hanged.

1591, Thomas Harvey (East Mersea) no further details available.

1591, Agnes Heard (Wivenhoe) no further details available.

1591, Edmund Hunt (Maldon) accused of using witchcraft to search for lost treasure at Beeligh [Beeleigh] Abbey.

1591, Alice Jenitas (Alresford) no further details available.

1591, Sara Kempe (Stondon) no further details available.

1591, "Widow" May (Woodford) no further details available.

1591, Elizabeth Maun (West Mersea) no further details available.

1591, George Oder (Maldon) accused of consorting with witches.

1591, Margaret Rooman (Bocking) accused of bewitching a black cow. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1591, 'Goodwife' Sare (Barking) no further details available.

1591, “Mother" Saunder (Bradwell) accused of being a witch but fled. No further details available.

1591, Margaret Wiseman (Bradwell) no further details available.

1592, Joan Bell (Fobbing) accused of being a witch after failing to receive Communion. Dismissed after a certificate was presented, signed by four honest neighbours.

1592, Elizabeth Boxer (Aveley) no further details available.

1592, John Crave (Romford) accused of going to cunning folk for which he was cautioned and dismissed.

1592, Margery Dickes (Bradfield) no further details available.

1592, Agnes Draper (Great Dunmow) accused of bewitching Alice Handley “so that she lost the use of the upper part of her body”. Pled not guilty but found guilty and sentenced to one year imprisonment.

1592, Alice Driver (Colchester) no further details available.

1592, Alice Foster (Barking) no further details available.

1592, Anne Heard (Little Oakley) no further details available.

1592, Agnes Hales (Stebbing) died of the plague in jail, no further details available.

1592, Margaret Hogden (Witham) no further details available.

1592, Amos Manship (Colne Engaine) no further details available.

1592, John Monday (Loughton) no further details available.

1592, Andrea or Audrey Mathewe (Great Dunmow) accused of using witchcraft to kill farm animals. Pled not guilty but found guilty and sentenced to one year in prison.

1592, William Moushowe (Romford) no further details available.

1592, Joan Playle (Great Waltham) found to be a witch and excommunicated.

1592, Margaret Rand (Colchester) no further details available.

1592, Anne Scott (Great Dunmow) accused of using witchcraft to kill Anne Swetinge. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1592, Jane Wallys (Stebbing) accused of using witchcraft to kill a man and a cow.

1592, Margaret Wiseman (Maldon) no further details available.

1593, Alice Alberte (Felsted) accused of bewitching 25 farm animals. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1593, Julianna Cock (Ashdon) died of a fever while imprisoned at Colchester Castle on suspicion of witchcraft.

1593, Joan Grine died of a fever while imprisoned at Colchester Castle on suspicion of witchcraft.

1593, Agnes Hales (Stebbing) died of a fever while imprisoned at Colchester Castle on suspicion of witchcraft.

1593, Elizabeth Esterford (Sible Hedingham) accused of bewitching two horses and a cow. Further accused of using witchcraft to kill Anne Biford, to which she pled not guilty and was found not guilty. Further accused of bewitching four farm animals, to which she pled not guilty but was found guilty.

1593, Agnes Haven (Boreham) accused of using witchcraft to cause multiple illnesses in John Brett. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1593, Margaret Mynnet (Woodham Ferrers) accused of using witchcraft to kill Joan Lorken and Isabel Lorken. Pled not guilty but found guilty on both counts.

1593, Elizabeth Packman (Great Clacton) accused of using witchcraft to break the peace.

1593, Margaret Saunder (Sible Hedingham) accused of using witchcraft to cause multiple illnesses in Elizabeth Bragge. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1593, Margaret Saunder (Rainham) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Wynter. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1594, Mary Belsted (Boreham) found guilty of witchcraft. No further details available.

1594, Agnes Bett (Saffron Walden) accused of using witchcraft to kill Nicholas Whigte. Pled not guilty and found not guilty. Further allegations of using witchcraft to kill a calf, to which she pled not guilty and was found not guilty.

1594, Mary Bright (Tendring) mother of Margaret Clarke, accused of being a witch but denied it.

1594, Margaret Clarke (Tendring) daughter of Mary Bright, accused of being a witch and a “woman of filthey [filthy] behaviour” but denied both counts.

1594, Elizabeth Garrett (Gosfield) and Joan Garrett (Gosfield), accused of using witchcraft to cause multiple illnesses in Walsingham Cooke. Both pled not guilty but were found guilty and remanded in prison for one year. Both faced further allegations of using witchcraft to kill Ralph Huntman. Both pled not guilty; Elizabeth was found guilty and Joan was found not guilty.

1594, Stephen Hugrave (Abberton) accused of bewitching two cows but found not guilty. Faced a further accusation with his wife, Alice Hugrave (Abberton), of using witchcraft to kill Margaret Stanton. Both found not guilty.

1594, Anne Harrison (Thorpe-le-Soken) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Bowle. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1594, Anne Harvey (Manningtree) accused of using witchcraft to kill Elizabeth Bowle. Pled not guilty and found not guilty. Further accusation of using witchcraft to kill Parnel Woolnett. Pled not guilty but found guilty.

1594, Bridget Hayle (Thorpe-le-Soken) and her daughter, Elizabeth Hayle (Thorpe-le-Soken), accused of using witchcraft to kill Richard Brands. Both pled not guilty and both were found not guilty.

1594, "Widow" Howe (Tolleshunt Knights) no further details available.

1594, Andrea or Audrey Mathewe (Great Dunmow) no further details available.

1595, Carter (Barking) no further details available.

1595, Margaret Childe (Great Horkesley) no further details available.

1595, Joan Foster (Broomfield) no further details available.

1595, Thomas Forby (Asheldham) no further details available.

1595, Rose More (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1595, Anne Moore (Rayleigh) accused of being a soothsayer and sorceress. No further details available.

1595, Alice Marshall (Stisted) no further details available.

1595, John Trower (Ingrave) and Grace Trower (Rettendon) accused of using witchcraft to kill 20 farm animals. Both pled not guilty but were found guilty and sentenced to a year in prison.

1595, Alice Tibbould (Little Bromley) no further details available.

1595, Elizabeth Woodborne (Clavering) no further details available.

1596, Joan Gardiner no further details available.

1596, Joan Luckyn no further details available.

1596, Mary Luckyn no further details available.

1596, 'Goodwife' Jones (Barking) no further details available.

1596, 'Goodwife' Rawe (Ashdon) no further details available.

1596, Agnes Smithe (Stebbing) no further details available.

1596, Faith Somer (Wigborough) committed for witchcraft.

1597, Augustin Elliott (Great Chishall) no further details available.

1597, Joan Fysher (Halstead) accused of bewitching a woman to death. No further details available.

1597, John Manning (Tolleshunt Knights) no further details available.

1597, 'Goodwife' Manning (Tolleshunt Knights) no further details available.

1597, Alice Warren (Brentwood) found guilty of using incantations and imprisoned for one year, with time on the pillory.

1598, Robert Browning (Aldham) no further details available.

1598, Christian Hunt (Tollesbury) no further details available.

1598, Thomas Morice (Beauchamp Roothing) no further details available.

1598, Joan Roothe (Great Bentley) no further details available.

1598, William Ruffle (Lawford) no further details available.

1598, Anne Rawe (Ashdon) no further details available.

1598, Mary Rawe (Ashdon) no further details available.

1599, Parnella Abbott (Greenstead) no further details available.

1599, Elizabeth Batcheler (Stifford) no further details available.

1599, Edmund Crosse (Goldhanger) no further details available.

1599, Christian Hunt (Tollesbury) no further details available.

1599, Elizabeth Shymell (Colchester) no further details available.

1599, Thomas Ward (Purleigh) no further details available.

1599, John Watson (South Benfleet) and ‘Goodwife’ Watson (South Benfleet) no further details available.

1600, Petronella Abbott (Greenstead) no further details available.

1600, Alice Aylett (Braintree) no further details available. Multiple previous allegations.

1600, Rose Chapman (Belchamp Walter) no further details available.

1600, James Hamon (East Tilbury) no further details available.

1600, "Widow" Howgrave (Abberton) accused of being a witch and continually absent from Church, but was dismissed.

1600, 'Goodwife' Lavander (Doddinghurst) no further details available.

1600, Thomas Saye (Buttsbury) no further details available.

1600, Stephen Vincent (Hockley) no further details available.

1600, Isabella Whyte (Purleigh) accused of bewitching cattle.

1601, Helen Alyer (Black Notley) no further details available.

1601, John Arwaker (Great Waltham) no further details available.

1601, Alice Babbe (Harwich) no further details available.

1601, Lucy Eltheridge (Thorpe-le-Soken) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1601, Margaret Ellis (Sible Hedingham) accused of bewitching four farm animals, but found not guilty.

1601, Margaret Grove (Harwich) no further details available.

1601, Ursula Harvey (Ramsey) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1601, Anne Harris (Feering) accused of using witchcraft to kill Mary Smyth. Pled not guilty, but found guilty and hanged.

1601, Elizabeth Hudson (Harwich) no further details available.

1601, Elizabeth Hanby (Harwich) no further details available.

1601, Elizabeth Hankinson (Harwich) no further details available.

1601, Magdalen Purcas (Panfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1601, David Tarver (Little Oakley) no further details available.

1601, Clemence Vale (Feering) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1602, Katherine Ager (Stebbing) “done penance for bewitching women [and] therefore dismissed”.

1602, William Burles (Black Notley) no further details available.

1602, Alice Bentley (Saffron Walden) no further details available.

1602, 'Goodwife' Frauncis (Hockley) no further details available.

1602, Robert Frend (Great Warley) no further details available.

1602, Agnes Gyll (Grays Thurrock) no further details available.

1602, 'Goodwife' Houlder (Beaumont) no further details available.

1602, Anne Hyble (Shalford) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1602, Margery Murfield (Hockley) no further details available.

1602, Thomas Maund (Great Dunmow) no further details available.

1602, Elizabeth Pegge (Braintree) no further details available.

1602, Audrey Pond (Old Saling) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1602, Barbara Pond (Stebbing) no further details available.

1602, George Taylor (Thaxted) no further details available.

1602, Thomas Veare (Horndon) no further details available.

1602, Agnes Wilkine (North Weald) no further details available.

1602, Thomas Welles (Birdbrook) no further details available.

1602, 'Goodwife' Welles (Birdbrook) no further details available.

1602, Anne/Alice Wyrght (Hatfield Broad Oak) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Clement. Pled not guilty and acquitted.

1603, John Banckes (Newport) no further details available.

1603, Anne Horne (Halstead) no further details available.

1603, Joan Roath (Great Bentley) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1603, Joan Thorndon no further details available.

1603, Margery Wilson (Black Notley) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1605, Richard Banckes (Earls Colne) no further details available.

1605, Grace Browne (Hadleigh) no further details available.

1605, John Comines (Great Parndon) no further details available.

1605, 'Goodwife' Comines (Great Parndon) no further details available.

1605, Elizabeth Chapman (Ugley) no further details available.

1605, William Duffield (Great Waltham) no further details available.

1605, Christine Fulton (Upminster) no further details available.

1605, "Widow" Hingson (Rochford) no further details available.

1605, Mary Harte (Harwich) no further details available.

1605, Margaret Prentize (Little Burstead) no further details available.

1605, Nicholas Slater (Roydon) accused of called a neighbour’s wife, name unknown, a “pockye whoare and old witch”.

1605, Katherine Weaver (Blackmore) no further details available.

1606, Richard Cradock (Radwinter), accused by John Mountford, Vicar of Radwinter, of conjuring up false spirits in the church and churchyard in an attempt to secure possession.

1606, Edwin Hadslye (Willingale Doe) among those accused of der-stealing and assault in the park of Lord Morley, and a Comon Conjurer; asked whether he offered information about the other deer-thieves, obtained from his magic glass, in exchange for his release.

1607, Anne Harvye (Coggeshall) no further details available.

1607, Edwin Haddesley (Willingale Doe) no further details available.

1607, Mary Woodward (Ramsey) no further details available.

1607, Blanche Worman (Moulsham) hanged for witchcraft at Gallows End, Rainsford Lane, Chelmsford.

1608, William Mawr (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1608, Suzanne Mawr (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1608, Henry Pechie (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1608, “Mrs" Pechie (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1608, Joan Pechie (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1608, “Mrs" Seley of (East Hanningfield) accused but the case was dismissed.

1609, Thomas Barneby (Harwich) no further details available.

1609, Alice Buske (Alphamstone) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1609, Anne Feilde no further details available.

1609, Edmund Munt (Great Bentley) accused of calling the wife of John Harris an “old whoare and witch”

1609, Alice Potchys (Stisted) no further details available.

1609, Mary Wade (Pattiswick) accused of using witchcraft to cause injury and illness to Grysagon Parker. Pled not guilty, but was found guilty and remanded due to pregnancy.

1609, Cecily Wigborough (Harwich) no further details available.

1609, Peter Wigborough (Harwich) no further details available.

1610, Lucy Buttler (Halstead) no further details available.

1610, Lunne (Mucking) no further details available.

1610, Katherine Lawrett (Wakes Colne) accused of using witchcraft to kill Susan Kynge. Found guilty and hanged.

1610, Alice Pitches (Stisted) no further details available.

1610, Anne Prentice (Bocking) no further details available.

1610, Anne Pennyfather (Little Totham) accused of bewitching Robert Thorocke “so that his body was wasted and mutilated”. Found not guilty.

1610, Anne Roberts (Little Thurrock) no further details available.

1610, Winifred Stowers (Halstead) no further details available.

1610, John Skafe (Great Burstead) no further details available.

1611, Anne Harvy (Colne Engaine) no further details available.

1611, Richard Jonn (North Ockendon) no further details available.

1611, Anne Jonn (North Ockendon) no further details available.

1612, Alice Arthur (Chelmsford) no further details available.

1612, Alice Batty (Toppesfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Reade. Found not guilty.

1612, Mary Clarke (Nazeing) accused of "offending against the article concerning soothsaying, charms, and other offences”. Held over till next court.

1612, Thomas Campe (Nazeing) "offending against the article concerning soothsaying, charms, and other offences”. Held over till next court.

1612, Giles Payson (Nazeing) “offending against the article concerning soothsaying, charms, and other offences”. Held over till next court.

1612, Agnes Rawlins (Hockley) no further details available.

1613, John Cornell (Borley) no further details available.

1613, Robert Parker (Toppesfield) no further details available.

1614, Alice Batty (Toppesfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill Thomas Perrie, aged 3. Acquitted.

1615, Margaret Buller (Dovercourt) no further details available.

1615, Grace Tabour (Stow Maries) no further details available.

1616, Susan Barker (Upminster) accused of using witchcraft to kill Edward Ashen Snr. and Edward Ashen Jnr. Allegation of using witchcraft to bewitch Mary Stephens “so that her body was wasted and mutilated. To do this she took a skull from a grave in Upminster cemetery. Acquitted for the allegation against Mary Stephens but found guilty for the murders of Edward Ashen Snr. and Jnr. Sentenced to hang.

1616, John Godfrie (Lambourne) accused of using witchcraft to kill John White. Found not guilty.

1616, Sarah Godfrie (Lambourne) accused of bewitching three horses and a pig. Found not guilty.

1616, Margaret Lambe (South Ockendon) no further details available.

1616, Blanche Prisley (Navestock) no further details available.

1616, Anne Prisley (Navestock) no further details available.

1616, Katherine Prisley (Navestock) no further details available.

1616, John Scates (Billericay) accused of conjuration and practising with the Devil to gain money.

1618, Anne Buller (Dovercourt) no further details available.

1618, Mary Holt (Little Leighs) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and sentenced to hang.

1618, Susan Spilman (Danbury) no further details available.

1619, Margaret Buller (Dovercourt) no further details available.

1619, Anne Byford no further details available.

1619, William Walford (Cold Norton) no further details available.

1620, Margaret Greene (Foulness) no further details available.

1620, Alice Trittle (Rettendon) no further details available.

1620, Gilbert Wakering (Halstead) no further details available.

1621, "Widow" Chapman, Anne Mortlake accused of procuring a sorcerer (Widow Chapman) to drive her husband mad so that she obtained his property and he wandered around as 'Mad Mortlake'.

1621, "Doctor" Francklin (Ratcliff) accused of being employed for witchcraft purposes, being paid 20 shillings.

1621, "Goodwife" Hedlin/Hedlyn (West Ham) no further details available.

1621, Anne Hewghes (Great Leighs) no further details available.

1621, Katherine Malpass (West Ham) “counterfeited possession with an evil spirit”

1621, Anne Mortlake (Birdbrook) accused of using a sorcercer (Widow Chapman) to make her husband mad.

1621, Elizabeth Parnsbye (Rickling) no further details available.

1621, "Goodwife" White (West Ham) no further details available.

1622, Alice Soles (Leigh) no further details available.

1624, George Burre (Brentwood) no further details available.

1624, John Crushe (Hawkwell) no further details available.

1626, Joan Freeman (Harlow) no further details available.

1626, Dorothy Hills (Wethersfield) no further details available.

1626, Katherine Kinge (Shalford) accused of using witchcraft to kill. Found guilty and hanged.

1626, Helen Pedder (Halstead) no further details available.

1626, Dennis Nash (Springfield) no further details available.

1626, Anne West (Shalford) no further details available.

1626, Anne Wilson no further details available.

1627, Barbara Augur (Upminster) no further details available.

1628, Anne Freeman no further details available.

1630, Dionisia Josselyn (Great Canfield) no further details available.

1631, Edmund Rowlande (Stifford) no further details available.

1631, Parnell Smyth no further details available.

1632, Mary Cutford (Rainham) no further details available.

1633, Jone Dowsit (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1633, Jane Case (Magdalen Laver) no further details available.

1633, Jane Lasco (Magdalen Laver) no further details available.

1633, 'Goody' Mathewe (High Roding) no further details available.

1633, Parnel Sharpe (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1633, Elizabeth Spacy (High Roding) no further details available.

1633, Jane Wiggins no further details available.

1633, Rebecca Write (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1634, Elinor Aylet (High Laver) no further details available.

1634, Joane Dowsett (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1634, Jeffery Holmes (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1634, Joane Holmes (Aythorpe Roding) no further details available.

1634, 'One' Mathew (Harlow) no further details available.

1634, Richard Pavitt (Leaden Roding) no further details available.

1634, 'Goodwife' Pavitt (Leaden Roding) no further details available.

1634, Jane Prentice (Harwich) no further details available.

1634, Anne Poulter (Harwich) no further details available.

1634, Faythe Saye (High Laver) no further details available.

1634, Jane Seabrooke no further details available.

1634, 'One' Somes (High Roding) no further details available.

1634, 'Goodwife' Somes (High Roding) no further details available.

1634, Rebecca Spacey (High Roding) no further details available.

1634, Emma Taylor no further details available.

1634, Jane Wiggins (Harwich) no further details available.

1634, Elizabeth Wilkins no further details available.

1636, Parnella Boutwood (Braintree) no further details available.

1638, Anne Cade (Great Holland) no further details available.

1638, Catherine Hooke (Stanford-le-Hope) accused of witchcraft but denied it. The case was dismissed.

1638, Susan Prentice (Harwich) no further details available.

1638, Jane Prentice (Harwich) no further details available.

1638, Elinor Witherall no further details available.

1639, Robert Garnett no further details available.

1639, Anne Lamperill no further details available.

1640, Elizabeth Harvey (Ramsey) no further details available.

1640, Sarah Hatyn (Ramsey) no further details available.

1640, Marian Hocket (Ramsey) no further details available.

1640, Margaret Moone (Thorpe-le-Soken) no further details available.

1641, Thomas Fuller (Layer Marney) no further details available.

1641, Anne West (Lawford) no further details available.

1642, Sarah Hatyn (Ramsey) no further details available.

1642, Anne Wace no further details available.

1642, Mary Webb (Hatfield Broad Oak) no further details available.

1643, John Alston (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Thomas Ailett (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Robert Aylett (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Joseph Dier (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Joseph Drake (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, William Drake (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Lady Eden (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Sarah Fletcher (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, 'One' Henry (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Martin Lumelyes (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, William Maxies (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Margaret Moone (Thorpe-le-Soken) no further details available.

1643, Abraham Rich (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, James Richardson (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Lambert Smith (Stisted) no further details available.

1643, Elizabeth Waite (Stisted) no further details available.

1644, Elisabeth Gooding (Mistley) no further details available.

1644, Dorothy Ilford no further details available.

1645: 25.07.1645, 30 witches tried, 14 hanged. ‘Mother’ Benfield (Lawford), hanged; Mrs Wayt, a Minister’s wife, hanged; Jane Browne, hanged; Jane Brigs/Bigs, hanged; ‘Mother’ Forman, hanged; ‘Mother’ Miller, hanged; Anne West, hanged; Rachel Flower, hanged; ‘Mother’ Clarke, hanged; ‘Mother’ Benefield, hanged; Mary Greene, hanged; Frances Jones, hanged; ‘Mother’ Goodwin, hanged; Mary Foster, hanged; Mary Rhodes, hanged. The full transcript of the trial can be found here. The trial transcript notes that “at this time a hundred more [witches] in severall prisons in Suffolke and Essex”. The accusations are as follows: Rebecca West, daughter to Anne West, was accused of having carnal copulation with the Devil. The rest of those tried were accused of bewitching men, women, children and cattle to death, “with many other strange things, the like was never heard of before.”

1645, John Alston (Stisted) no further details available.

1645, Joyce Boones (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1645, Sarah Borton (Ramsey) no further details available.

1645, Dorothy Brooke no further details available.

1645, Helen Bretton (Kirby-le-Soken) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Sarah Bright (Manningtree) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Sarah Burton (Harwich) no further details available.

1645, Anne Cade (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1645, Anne Cate (Great Holland) admitting to sending four mice to bite the knees of a man, who then died. The confession was gained by Matthew Hopkins.

1645, Margaret Landish, admitted, under Matthew Hopkins’ interrogation, that "something had sucked her privy parts and much pained her". She was encouraged to speculate who sent this torment, and she pointed at Susan Cocke, another defendant.

1645, Susan Cocke (St. Osyth), accused by Margaret Landish during her interrogation by Matthew Hopkins.

1645, Margaret Moone admitted to harbouring twelve imps, which she used to destroy bread and upset brewing, and when she was evicted by her landlord, she sent a plague of lice to his household.

1645, Joan Cooper (Great Clacton) no further details available.

1645, Anne Cooper (Great Clacton) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Mary Cooke (Langham) no further details available.

1645, Elizabeth Clarke (Manningtree) no further details available.

1645, Ellen Clarke (Manningtree) accused of using witchcraft to kill Anne Parsley. Pled not guilty but found guilty and hanged. Matthew Hopkins was a witness in the case.

1645, Mary Coppin (Kirby-le-Soken), given a Lord’s pardon and sentenced to remain in jail.

1645, Alice Dixon (Wivenhoe) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Elizabeth Gibson (Thorpe-le-Soken) no further details available.

1645, Margery Grew (Walton-le-Soken) no further details available.

1645, Elizabeth Gooding (Manningtree) no further details available.

1645, Mary Greencliffe (Alresford) given a Lord’s pardon and sentenced to remain in jail. Died of the plague as a widow, aged approximately 84.

1645, 'Goodwife' Hagtree no further details available.

1645, Rose Hallybread (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1645, Sarah Hatyn (Ramsey) no further details available.

1645, Elizabeth Harvy (Ramsey) given a Lord’s pardon in March 1646. Died of the plague, aged 70.

1645, Elizabeth Heare (Great Clacton) no further details available.

1645, Annis Heard (St. Osyth) no further details available.

1645, Mary Hockett (Ramsey) no further details available.

1645, ‘Goodwife’ Hovey (Hadleigh) no further details available.

1645, Mary Johnson (Wivenhoe) found guilty of entertaining, employing and feeding three evil spirits. Sentenced to hang but reprieved after judgement.

1645, Rebecca Jones (St. Osyth) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Anne Leach (Mistley) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1645, Bridget Mayers (Great Holland) no further details available.

1645, Judith Moone (Thorpe-le-Soken) no further details available.

1645, Joan Rowle (Leigh) accused of using witchcraft to bewitch Rachel North so that she “was greatly wounded and consumed”. Pled not guilty and found not guilty.

1645, 'Widow' Stawsby (Colchester) no further details available.

1645, Mary Sterling (Langham) given a Lord’s pardon and sentenced to remain in jail.

1645, Anne Therston (Great Holland) given a Lord’s pardon and sentenced to remain in jail.

1645, Susanna Went (Langham) given a Lord’s pardon in March 1646. Died of the plague, aged 70.

1645, Dorothy Waters (Great Clacton) given a Lord’s pardon. Died of the plague aged 40.

1645, Mary Wiles (Great Clacton) found guilty of using witchcraft to kill and hanged.

1646, Debora Nailer (Elsenham) accused of causing death by witchcraft. No further details available, but not hanged as there are later accusations.

1647, Anne Clarke (Waltham Cross) no further details available.

1647, Helen Disse (Ridgewell) no further details available.

1647, Jane Lavender (Navestock) no further details available.

1647, Francis Lavender (Navestock) no further details available.

1647, Nicholas Leech (Manningtree) no further details available.

1649, Ruth Stephens no further details available.

1650, Elizabeth Balden (Knebsworth) no further details available.

1650, Deborah Naylor (Elsenham) accused of using witchcraft to cause illness. Verdict unknown.

1650, Mary Welby (Newport) no further details available.

1650, Elizabeth Whitelocke (Great Chesterford) no further details available.

1651, Margaret Burgis (Colchester) no further details available.

1651, William Hills (Berden) no further details available.

1651, John Lock (Colchester) no further details available.

1651, Joan Wayte (Barnston) no further details available.

1652, Elizabeth Hynes (Thorpe-le-Soken) no further details available.

1653, Mary Aylett (Bocking) no further details available.

1653, Benjamyn Brand (Stebbing) and Joan Brand (Stebbing), found guilty of using witchcraft to find lost goods. Sentenced to one year in prison.

1653, Helen Dishe (Takeley) accused of bewitching Rueben Bowier. Verdict unknown.

1653, Susan Haveringe (West Tilbury) no further details available.

1653, Mary Hurst (Nevendon) no further details available.

1653, John Lock (Great Bentley) accused of using witchcraft but acquitted.

1653, Thomas White (Great Braxted) no further details available.

1653, Elizabeth Wyndell (West Tilbury) no further details available.

1654, Anne Clark (Waltham Cross) no further details available.

1657, Mary Symons (Great Totham) no further details available.

1659, William Bones (Finchingfield) no further details available.

1659, Abraham Bones (Finchingfield) no further details available.

1659, Mary Warner (Finchingfield) no further details available.

1659, Alice Warner (Finchingfield) no further details available.

1659, Anne Woolward (Chelmsford) no further details available.

1660, Elizabeth Huntsman no further details available.

1660, Bridget Weaver (Harwich) no further details available.

1662, Anne Silvester (Orsett) no further details available.

1663, Sarah Houghton (Stambourne) no further details available.

1664, Robert Copping (Woodham Ferrers) no further details available.

1664, John Webb (Woodham Mortimer) accused of consulting a cunning man. Verdict unknown.

1666, Anne Betts (Stapleford Tawney) accused of gaining two silk scarves, value £1/8s (approximately £147 today), as payment for telling the fortune of Mary Prescott. Verdict unclear – Anne is in Colchester Jail [Colchester Castle] but this may have been while awaiting trial or her sentencing.

1666, Martha Driver alias Martha Chalke (Barking) accused of using witchcraft to kill John Stevens, aged 5. Pled not guilty and acquitted.

1670, Joan Crumpe (South Weald) accused of using witchcraft to kill Eleanor French. Pled not guilty and acquitted.

1670, Margaret Leech (Bradfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill Martha Nashs. Pled not guilty and acquitted.

1670, Sarah Ladbrooke (Bradfield) accused of using witchcraft to kill Doras Fall. Pled not guilty and acquitted.

1670, John Wood (Bradfield) sentenced to three months imprisonment. No details of the crime are available.

1675, Elizabeth Gynn (Great Dunmow) no further details available.

1863, ‘Dummy’ died of pneumonia following immersion in water. See history notebook 10.

Conclusion

Pulling the data together, it’s easy to see the impact of Matthew Hopkins’ witch hunts (from 1644-47) on the overall number of accusations and the number of executions.

It also clear that citizens lived in fear of witchcraft, and being accused of it. Unfortunately the verdict for many of the accused isn’t known, but we do know that they would have suffered, either in prisons, excommunicated or singled out in their local communities. The superstitions surrounding witches and witchcraft persisted long into the 18th century, and in some rural communities into the 19th century, such as the case of Dummy in Sible Hedingham. Thankfully society has changed and we now acknowledge the harm the witch hunts caused, and respectfully remember those accused of executed.

Resources

We have found the following resources helpful to the production of this article:

• 1560s in England - Wikipedia

• 1563 London plague - Wikipedia

• 1570s in England - Wikipedia

• 1580s in England - Wikipedia

• 1610s in England - Wikipedia

• 1620s in England - Wikipedia

• 1630s in England - Wikipedia

• 1640 in England - Wikipedia

• 1650s - Wikipedia

• 1660 in England - Wikipedia

• 1670 in England - Wikipedia

• A brief history of how brutal interrogations of ‘witches’ were all about punishing sex (inews.co.uk)

• Agnes Waterhouse - Wikipedia

• Bishops' Wars - Wikipedia

• Charles I of England - Wikipedia

• Chelmsford Witches (witchtrials.co.uk)

• Currency converter: 1270–2017 (nationalarchives.gov.uk)

• Discovery of Witches

• Elizabethan era - Wikipedia

• Essex Witch Trials

• Explore Colchester's Dark History - Visit Colchester

• Hanging - Wikipedia

• Hangmen of England: A History Of Execution From Jack Ketch To Albert Pierrepoint by Brian Bailey

• History Notebook 10: The Sible Hedingham Witchcraft Case

• James VI and I - Wikipedia

• King James VI and I’s Demonology, 1597 - The British Library (bl.uk)

• Mathew Hopkins (witchtrials.co.uk)

• Matthew Hopkins - Wikipedia

• Mistley and the Witchfinder (essexandsuffolksurnames.co.uk)

• Stuart Restoration - Wikipedia

• The Hangman’s Record: Volume One 1868-1899 by Steve Fielding

• The history of Colchester Castle | Colchester Museums (cimuseums.org.uk)

• The Trials Of The Pendle Witches (Witchcraft Documentary) | Timeline - YouTube

• The unique concept of the Witch and the Witch trials in early modern England (luthercollege.edu)

• The witch trial that made legal history - BBC News

• The Witchcraft Trials Of Essex | BritEvents

• West (witchtrials.co.uk)

• Witchcraft - UK Parliament

• Witchcraft Act 1763 (witchtrials.co.uk)

• Witchcraft Acts - Wikipedia

• Witchcraft in an Age of Rebellion, 1625–1649 - Oxford Scholarship (universitypressscholarship.com)

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/1566AW.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/1566EF.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/1582.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/driftes.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/prentice.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/rules.html

• www.witchtrials.co.uk/trial.html